. Introduction
China-Russia-North Korea Military Cooperation and Solidarity Methods
The method of cooperation between China, Russia, and North Korea presents a notable contrast to the trilateral cooperation observed between the Republic of Korea, the United States, and Japan. While the military coordination between the ROK-US-Japan alliance is explicit and direct, the cooperation within the China-Russia-DPRK nexus manifests in a sequential and covert manner. Initially, joint military exercises are undertaken by China and Russia, followed by a series of provocations conducted by North Korea, secretly and indirectly supported by China and Russia. Although trilateral military exercises involving China, Russia, and North Korea remain unsubstantiated and highly improbable, they warrant careful consideration. Whether simultaneous or sequential, North Korea’s provocations during China-Russia joint military exercises, or vice versa, put pressure on the ROK, the U.S., and Japan, creating instability and tension on the Korean peninsula. If China felt severely burdened by North Korea’s provocations as they prompt ROK-US-Japan military responses, then China wouldn’t have actively defended North Korea together with Russia, citing ‘legitimate security concerns’ at a United Nations Security Council meeting. Now, China no longer views North Korea’s provocations as a strategic liability but a strategic asset in pressurizing the ROK, the U.S., and Japan.
In particular, since September to October 2022, North Korea has boldly conducted counterattack drills, undeterred by whichever strategic assets the U.S. deploys. Demonstrating a resolute stance, North Korea has swiftly responded to U.S. deployments, including the USS Ronald Reagan, USS Key West, USS Springfield, amphibious warfare ships, and advanced air assets. Notably, the unveiling of the modular nuclear warhead ‘Hwasan-31’ in 2023 signifies North Korea’s persistent pursuit of tactical nuclear capabilities and immediate response capabilities. Its unwavering resolve to respond to any U.S. weaponry with nuclear force marks a confidence distinct from the past.
This newfound confidence may stem not only from successful developments in tactical nuclear weaponry but also from the strategic maneuvers and security posturing of China and Russia in the Korean peninsula’s vicinity. This can be observed from the developments that unfolded from late September to early October 2022. Joint naval exercises involving the ROK, the U.S., and Japan were conducted in the East Sea near Dokdo, joined by the U.S. aircraft carrier, Ronald Reagan. During this period, North Korea launched ballistic missiles a total of 7 times as part of its ‘ballistic missile launching drill under the simulation of loading tactical nuclear warheads.’ Notably audacious was the launch of the intermediate-range ballistic missile, ‘Hwasong-12,’ which breached Japanese airspace on October 4. This occurred as the USS Ronald Reagan passed through the Tsugaru Strait in Japan, en route to its forward-deployed port in Yokosuka following the joint naval exercises with South Korea and Japan. This unprecedented act marked the first instance of a missile being launched into airspace above the USS Ronald Reagan since its commissioning in 2003. It would be challenging to find any instances of missiles being fired into the airspace above or even near a U.S. aircraft carrier since World War II. Consequently, the USS Ronald Reagan altered its course, returning to Dokdo in the East Sea, while the ROK-U.S.-Japan naval exercises were prolonged by an additional day.
A notable aspect during this period is the China-Russia joint military exercises. In early September 2022, during the multinational “Vostok (East 2022)” exercises (September 1-7), China and Russia conducted joint exercises in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. Following the conclusion of the exercise, naval vessels were deployed to the Korean Peninsula and near Japan until early October. The Chinese naval vessels were deployed from the waters of the East Sea of ​Korea to the vicinity of Imori Strait in Japan, the Korea Strait, and Okinawa, while Russia conducted operations in the eastern Pacific of Japan, effectively encircling the Japanese islands. Amidst the backdrop of joint exercises involving the ROK-U.S.-Japan alliance and China-Russia collaboration, North Korea conducted the missile launches.

2. Comparison of China, Russia, and North Korea’s Perceptions and Strategies
Regarding Trilateral Alliance
3. Factors Contributing to the Coherence and Durability of the China-Russia-North
Korea Alliance
1) China-Russia Relations: Between Strategic Cooperation and Mutual Skepticism
2) Russia-North Korea Military Cooperation: Long-term Strategic Alignment and Short-term Interests 3) Pressure and Containment from the ROK-U.S.-Japan Alliance
4. Conclusion
1) South Korea’s Strategy towards China to Prevent China-Russia-North Korea Alliance
2) South Korea’s Strategy towards Russia to Prevent China-Russia-North Korea Alliance
3) South Korea’s Strategy towards North Korea to Prevent China-Russia-North Korea Alliance